THE PLACE OF ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES IN YEMEN TODAY:

PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES

Sanaa, Yemen

Data presented in this paper have been obtained from reports ofScientific Expeditions to Yemen, survey of published and unpublishedpapers and reports as well as results obtained from questionnairesdistributed to old farmers to know how our grand Yemeni farmers didin ancient days to manage agricultural pests. Results have shown thatYemeni farmers in ancient times believe on " Protection is betterthan Cure". They selected the right variety of a crop to be sown inthe right sowing date which was known according to known localcalendars called " Alnojoum" .Yemeni farmers were among theold nations who used biocontrol agents for the control ofagricultural pests. They used to bring predatory ants from mountainsfor the control of date palm pests in their orchards at WadiHadramout and Tihama area. They also put sticks to facilitate itsmovement from one tree to another. Our grand Yemeni farmers also usedsand , ash, oil and some repellent plants to manage agriculturalpests; as well as mechanical methods including collecting and eatingsome agricultural pests like locusts and termites. Yemeni farmersalso used different techniques and cantainers to store theiragricultural products. They used "Madafin" and barrels forcereals , clay containers such as "Ziar" and skins of goats tostore dates; and to protect stored food products they used plantmaterials such as "Mraimrah", oil, and ash . These oldpractices Yemeni Farmers used in ancient times formulate what we callrecently Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for agricultural pestswhich we badly need these days.

Agriculture in Yemen dates back to at least 5000 years. (GDPP andGTZ 1993). As far as insects are concerned, some references datedback beekeeping to about 1000BC (Ingrams 1942). History of insectcollection in Yemen started later on. The first to launch ascientific expedition to Yemen was Frederick V, King of Denmark(Hacker 1999). Although the first expedition ended tragically as mostmembers died from malaria, but their results were published later onby Niebuhr (1792) and Hansen(1993).

If we follow up the history of agriculture in Yemen, we will findthat a lot of ancestral indigenous knowledge developed by Yemenifarmers, which have been elaborated throughout generations andcenturies. The Yemeni farmers used different indigenous agriculturalpractices and techniques including, constructing canals, dams andweirs and developed different ways to harvest water. Thearchaeological vestiges of large scale hydraulic construction worksand terraces built on steep slopes of mountains, as well as differentagricultural practices and techniques stand evidences of how Yemenifarmers in ancient times manage the available natural resources andpreserve them for centuries.

This paper shows some old indigenous practices our grandfathersused for agricultural pest control in ancient agriculture in Yemen,to make use of in developing recent agricultural practices and to seewhat do they mean in recent concepts of pest management

For data collection and analysis, we used the following methodsand referred to the following sources:

• A questionnaire was distributed in different areas including Tihama region, Taiz, Ibb and southern governorates , The questionnaire aims at answering what indigenous practices used for pest control in the area. Emphases in Tihama area were given to date palm pests and termites. In mid and high altitudes in Taiz, Ibb and Yafe'a was given to coffee pests, and in Wadi Hadramout emphases were given to wheat and date palm. In all surveyed governorates, a question was asked about food storage techniques and problems.

• Survey of available published and unpublished papers and reports, found at some agricultural research and academic institutes that we visit. More concentration was given to European and other foreign expeditions, particularly those reports of Niebuhr (1792) Forskal (1775), Auchterlonie (1998) and Serjeant (1974), in addition to some Yemeni writers who wrote about indigenous and ancient agriculture in Yemen (Al-Anasi 1998)

• We made a survey using On-Line services at Internt, and reached some web pages that mentioned something about Yemen.

• In our field visits to different agricultural areas in Yemen, we contacted old people and ask them about traditional and indigenous practices their grandfathers used for the control of agricultural pests in Yemen.

• We also ask our friends who helped us with some information they keep from their ancestors Mr. Fowad Bahakim an FAO Expert at EMPRES Project was one of them

Selecting the suitable variety and the appropriate sowingdate

The results of the questionnaire showed that our grandfathersalways used the slogan "Protection is better than Cure". Mostagricultural practices used for pest control in ancient Yemen wereprotective rather than preventive. Farmers always follow a localcalendar based on astronomy. They have their own agriculturalcalendars and Almanacs. Most farmers started sowing a certain crop ata certain "Najm" star. Each star lasts for 13-14 days. If theydelay sowing to another star, this means that the crop will not growwell and it may be prune to pests and disease attacks. Each seasonhas its own varieties to be sown only in this season, and on certainstars.

There are several proverbs said in some areas in Yemen that warnsfarmers of late sowing or not sowing in the appropriate star. Forexample, in central areas and Dhamar there is a proverb saying" Ifyou catch the season one night earlier, you will have an additionalKaila (unit of yield), but if you sow late in the season byone night, you will have a reduction of one Kaila". Anotherproverb in Sabr area said" Don't cry for your mother if she died, butcry about one day in Nisan (April), if you missed it". Thismeans that if your mother dies, it is something beyond your control,but if you miss a day in April, which is the best sowing date forsorghum, you have to cry for that, because it is your fault that youmissed the appropriate sowing date which will give you high yields ofsorghum. This means that our grand farmers are keen enough not tomiss the appropriate sowing date. Actually Nisan (April) isthe suitable sowing date for summer white sorghum crop in thoseareas, which starts from 8 &endash; 21 April. In Ibb areas there arealso some proverbs about different sowing dates for differentcultivars of sorghum. They said "A'athar" (March) sowing isfor red cultivars of sorghum, Nisan (April) is for those whowant to enjoy looking at a good crop, but A'ayar (May) sowingis just for cows (i.e. not giving grains and you can use it as afodder crop)".

Al &endash;Anasi (1998) made a good comparative study between theRasulid Agricultural Calendars and Almanac (808A.H,) 1404 and similarcalendars given by the Astronomist Mohamed bin Haidarah (1367A.H.)1947 concerning the appropriate sowing dates for cereals particularlysorghum. Al-Anasi(1998) mentioned that in AlHada, sorghum grown inwhat he called Ma'alam Al Thor" where it is sown "Zaghdah" (infew grains). While in Hadramout the summer sowing season started in"Annajm Zabra" which is equivalent to 7th March. The wintersowing season started at the Nijm (Star) "AlBaldah"which started 15th July. Wheat was usually grown in "NijmAlHout" which starts on 14th October. It is worth to mention thatin Wadi Hadramout, all sowing and harvest dates are associated withAnnujoum (stars) calendars The farmer always selects thesuitable cultivar for the suitable sowing date in the suitableregion, and therefore you get "simsim saifi" a summer sesame crop,and "Dura saifi" a summer sorghum crop, autumn and wintercrops and so on.

It is observed that most crops in Yemen are called after theirharvest season. For example "AlGeiadth" a new inscriptiondiscovered recently in Ma'areb (Al-Ariani 1988), is a name for acereal crop sown in winter and harvested in summer. It is also a nameof a Himyari month, which is equivalent to June. Those crops sownafter winter rains called "Rabeia'ah" which means spring; theyare called after their harvest time.

In early times, Yemeni farmers did the selection of good seeds bythemselves. They surveyed the crop and selected the best spikes andears, tagged them and those selected spikes have different names indifferent regions. In Anas, they are called "Mahajeen" and aretagged by "Shaga'a", good spikes are called"hajrah".

Some cultivars of cereal and vegetable crops are still named afterfamous farmers who did the selection year after year and distributedseeds to other farmers in the region. For example there are somewheat and onion cultivars still carry the name of 'Ba-Ftaim"who was a famous intelligent farmer who developed famous selectionsof cultivars in Wadi Hadramout. There are also other cultivars thatwere called after a region or an area or a famous farmer inYemen.

Land preparations and methods of sowing as well as timing ofsowing were different in different areas of Yemen and different fromcrop to crop in the same area. In Tihama, they use what they called"Takbeesh" in sowing Dukhn (millet), In Abyan and Lahejgovernorates, cotton ,cereals and evevn some vegetables are grown bygiven only one irrigation by floods diverted to them through dams andweirs, while in other areas in Yemen, cotton and similar crops aregiven several irrigation. Such traditional methods used for landpreparations and irrigation systems must be studied to make use of atrationalizing water use and lead to sustainable agriculturalproduction. These traditional methods Yemeni farmers used concerningselecting the appropriate time of sowing and methods of landpreparation, are collectively now called "Agricultural Methods" whichare considered very important methods of control in Insect PestManagement (IPM) systems.

Other cultural methods

In ancient agriculture, Yemenis were aware of the importance ofpruning particularly for fruit trees. It has been mentioned in"Bughiat AlFallheen" (Sergeant1974) the dates of pruning formost crops , according to star calendars, and time of pruningparticularly for grapes, as well as the way they prune grape treesand date palm trees in different parts of Yemen, as they believe thatthis will help protecting their trees from pests and diseases.

In answering the questionnaire, old farmers mentioned that theyalso burn the trash and leftovers of crops to get rid of diseases andpests hidden in these parts.

At "Assiteen and Assabeen" season at "Al-Awathil" area, anorthern eastern wind usually prevails at sowing time till afternoon,then it stops, if a south western wind prevails after that, farmersusually stop sowing, as they believe that if they continue sowingwhile this wind prevails, their crop will be infected with smut.

It has been mentioned quite often in early reports( Niebuhr 1796,Serjeant 1974) and also in answers of the questionnaire that farmersused interplanting practices i.e. they used to grow a sorghum cropand in between rows they grow cowpeas or a leguminous crop likelentil in order to improve the quality of the soil, increase itsfertility and decrease population of insect pests.

Mechanical methods of pest control

In traditional agriculture, farmers used mechanical controlmethods for pest control. They used to collect all stages of pests bytheir hands with the help of all members of the family and destroythem. When locusts attacked the crop they used to collect them, frythem and eat them. They also try to make loud noises, use drums andsing songs in-groups saying, " Oh Locusts go away from ourfields".

When termites swarm at night the alated adults that are attractedby light are collected and eaten by farmers.

Farmers used to have different structures (Khial AlMaatah)installed in fields to frighten birds. They also guard their crops atharvest time. The guardsmen make loud noise or make their own specialinstruments which throw stones or make large noise to frightenbirds.

The use of Biocontrol agents for pest control (Biologicalcontrol)

Yemenis were among the earlier nations that used biocontrol agentsfor the control of agricultural pests. Botta (1941), Doutt (1964),DeBach (1974) and Ba-Angood(1990) in talking about the history ofbiological control have mentioned that the Chinese and Yemenis wereamong the first nations who used biological control methods foragricultural pests . In traditional agriculture farmers in Tihama,Taiz and Hadramout used to collect predatory ants (qu'as) frommountains to control date palm pests which attack fruits. This hasbeen described in a 13th century agricultural text by al-Malikal-Ashraf 'Umar of Rasulid Yemen ( Varisco 1992, DeBach 1974,Serjeant 1974, Ba-Angood 1990). When we asked old farmers about thispractice they confirm that. They added that they have to put somesticks to make ants to travel from one tree to another. Later onBa-Angood (1990) and AlGhashm (1994) have mentioned that still somefarmers in Duba'a and wadi Hadramout used this practice. Theymentioned that there are three species of predatory ants recorded indate palm trees which are Crematogaster affabilis , C.flaveventris and Monomorium bicolor which were used forthe control of the date lesser moth Batrachedra amydraula .Ba-Angood (1990) has also mentioned that these predators are alsoused for the control of termites in Tihama area

The Use of Oils on pest control

When answering the questionnaire, farmers in Wadi Hadramoutmentioned that in traditional agriculture, they used oil for thecontrol of pests and diseases on date palm fruits. Some old farmerssaid that sesame oil was applied to the flowering branches at thetime of pollination in order to protect them from diseases. This is apractice also documented in the medieval text (Varisco 1992). Otherssaid that they applied the oil of castor plant Ricinus communiswhich they call 'Shajarat azzait' and rubbed the spates ofdate palm. Ba-Angood (1990) mentioned that they used this oil for thecontrol of the lesser date moth B. amydraula in order to killthe eggs and larvae of the pest and prevent the moth from puttingeggs on fruits.

Vegetable oils were also used in traditional agriculture as it iscoated on legume and been seeds to protect them from store pests.

The Use of repellant plants

When answering the questionnaire, old farmers in Yafe'a area havementioned that they never use pesticides for the control of coffeepests in their areas. Instead, they use repellant plants to protectthe crop from the attack of pests and diseases. When we have a lookto these plants we find that they belong to the genera Ficusand Tagetes . Some of them have local names but we couldn'tidentify their Latin names. They usually use them for the control ofthe coffee bean borer 'AlKharz' Prophantis samaragdina and the leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella .

However, In Wadi Alsser at Hamadan and also in Sa'dah , they alsoused onion bulbs buried in soil near grape trees for the control oftermites (Al-Anasi 1998)

Protection from store pests and diseases

Our grandfathers in ancient agriculture used several methods toprotect their grains and other stored products from the attack ofstore pests and diseases. In Al-Hada and Bani Matar areas, goodgrains are selected and stored mixed with some plants called 'Na'adh'to protect grains from smut diseases (Al-Anasi1998). In Bani Fadhland Ibb areas, farmers used to mix ash with grains and put in smalltanks closed with mud. The use of ash mixed with grains of sorghumand wheat has been mentioned in several reports (Serjeant 1974,Al-Anasi 1998). In Hadramout old farmers said that they are stilladopting the traditional methods of keeping dates on clay containerscalled locally 'Gihal' and 'Ziar' then they close itsopenings with soft dates and a layer of ash.

Grains and legumes are often stored in underground granariescalled 'Madafen'. In Yafe'a and Mukairas areas, they also usedbarrels and they also closed them with layers of ash. Some of themused Mraimrah (Azadirachta indica) leaves with grainsin storage, in order to protect stored grains from the attack ofstore pests .

When we asked old farmers whether they prefer to store grains inits heads or as individuals, they said that they adopt therecommendation of the prophet Yousuf Assidiq when he advised the Kingof Egypt that what you harvested keep it in its heads. This also hasbeen recommended by Al-Malik Al-Afdal in Mediaeval Yemen (Sejeant1974).

In Socotra Island people used skin hides for storing dates andother food products. In answers to the questionnaire and inexpedition reports, as well as in Medieval Yemen ( Segeant 1974,AlAnasi 1998), we find that in traditional agriculture, Yemenifarmers used oil, ash and sand for the control of pests anddiseases.

For the control of rodents old farmers mentioned that theirgrandfathers used special types of wild onion, probably 'BasalAlAnsal'.

For pests and diseases transmitted by seeds, it has been mentionedin Mediaeval Yemen, that farmers in Dhamar and Wadi Hadramout used tosoak sorghum seeds in water and salt, and they leave them for onenight, before sowing. Old farmers commented on that by saying " ifthey don't change the water, seeds will sprout and will not growwell". This practice was used to protect the seeds from attack bysome seedling pests which they call 'AlGaridh' in Dhamar, and'AL Dowainah' in Wadi Hadramout. Al-Anasi (1998) alsoconfirmed this where he quoted that in Khowlan area, the sorghumseeds should be soaked before sowing and they locally called it'Mownish' then dried it. Those seeds which are not soaked theycall 'Hateem'. If this 'hateem' was sown they expectthat it will give small ears and could be attacked by smut disease.Old farmers quoted that in traditional agriculture, you some time gotseeds that you are not sure whether they are good or not, and at thesame time you want to catch the growing season. So farmers usuallyput a sample of them in a mesh and pour hot water on them, keep themto cool and then pour ordinary water, dry them and sow them in asmall plot. If theses seeds germinated well, then you can use themand the crop will give good yield.

Major pests and diseases mentioned in traditionalagriculture

The following insects are those mentioned in BughyatAlFallaheen in Medieval Yemen (Serjeant 1974) also mentioned byNiebuhr (1792) and Al-Anasi (1998):

Locusts:

Locusts are insect pests that have been mentioned quite a lot in traditional agriculture. Old farmers also complained of its attacks and the losses they made to cereal crops. There are some proverbs about the locust and its damage. AlHakim ( Experienced and wise man) Ali Bin Zaid said" Endi tagoum alGiamah wa la haneen al Majarid", which means that he prefers the world ends rather than he heard the noise s of locusts. A lot of poems were cited in mediaeval agriculture describing the locusts in details and the losses they do to crops. However it is mentioned inmore than one source (Al-Anasi1998) that the Yemeni farmers prefer tha attack of locusts rather than the attack of cold.

In Ghaizan area they have a proverb which says " Ya Rub bgardaj gabl ma yarkaz al aoud", which means that they want the locusts to come but when the seeds just starts sprouting and their stems havn't yet stand up. They explained that at this time when the plant attacked by locusts, would be stimulated to give a good growth. There are some experiments nowadays which show that when locust attack a sorghum crop at an early stage it may stimuale the crop to give more leaves.

AlFarrarah

This insect is described as a long worm, which attacks date palm. It might be 'AlDowaibah' as one of the old farmers said, which is a beetle that attacks dates after harvest.

AlHamar

It is described as an insect pest that attacks wheat and alfalfa

AlHallah

This insect was described as a small green insect that attacks alfalfa and sorghum. The common name for this group of insects is aphids.

AlHout

It is described as a small worm that attacks the stem of cereals. It is probably a stem borer

Aljouthmy

It was described as a small worm that attacks sorghum from below. It is probably either cutworm or armyworm

A'shaheth

It was described as a small insect with the size of a bed bug. It attacks barley. It is said that A'shaheth appears after a lightening and disappeared after another. This insect is probably an aphid.

A'ssalala /Ashadhwi

This insect was described as a termite

Pest control methods for particular pests mentioned intraditional agriculture

Locusts were mentioned quite often in traditional agriculture.Several poems and proverbs were quoted, and different methods ofcontrol have been mentioned. Some of which, making noises by drumsand using specific structures to frighten locusts e.g. 'GasabatAl-Jarad'; which consisted of a stick, a piece of cloth and metalstructures attached that swing with the wind and make noises. Inaddition to that, it has been mentioned in more than one region thatthey also collect locusts and eat it.

Two types of ants were mentioned in traditional agriculture, antsas pests which Yemenis control by putting ash, salt and water attheir nests, and ants leave after that. Other predatory ants wereused for the control of date palm pests in Tihama and Hadramoutareas. They were also used for the control of termites.

Cumin was burnt and used to deter mosquitoes in houses. SomeYemeni farmers burn the chaff of wheat and barley, others burn dungand manure. They believe that this will keep some pests away and someadded that this would kill flying insect pests attracted to thefire.

For the control of bed bugs old farmers mentioned that they soakpeas for three days, then they add lime to it and coated the walls ofthe house. They believe that bugs will not live in these housesafterwards.

From above it appears that there are a lot of traditionalknowledge and experience in traditional agriculture that needs to betested, tried and to see whether it is still applicable in thesechanging environment.

Zakat alMahsool

One of the interested answers to the questionnaire presented toold farmers was Zakat giving, which is a religious tax thatmust be paid for poor people for each crop harvested They said thatthe most protective way for the crop is to give zakah once itis harvested. This will protect the yield from pests and diseasesin-Sha'a - Allah, as they quoted. This was confirmed inBughyat AlFallaheen (Serjeant 1974).

Insect Pest Management in Traditional Agriculture inYemen

It appears from the results of the questionnaire, meetings withold farmers, and expertise; in addition to what foreign people whovisited Yemen ( Forskal 1775, Ingrams 1942, Niebuhr 1792, Variso1992) have written, it seems that Yemenis in ancient agriculture usedseveral methods of control to suit the right location, the right cropsown in the right time. They used protective and preventive methods,including biological, mechanical, cultural methods and they madetheir own selection of varieties and cultivars. These methods areknown recently as Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

Traditional agriculture in Yemen was by far oriented towardsustainable production, with a combination of practices that reducedor eliminated pest infestation and diseases. Many of these practicescontinue but this knowledge is rapidly disappearing. It is veryimportant to make use of these traditional and indigenous knowledgeto develop our Integrated Pest Management Programs (IPM) for mainagricultural pests in Yemen, which we badly need recently.

Recommendations

1. We have to make use of the accumulated traditional experienceour Yemeni farmers have left concerning the use of plants and theirextracts for the control of agricultural pests. We have to identifythem and test their efficacy.

2. Verification of sowing dates for different crops according toAgricultural calendars based on star (Alnojoum) calculations

3. A survey of natural indigenous enemies for agricultural pestsin Yemen and testing what was used by our grandfathers in ancientagriculture

4. Carrying out applied research to verify the ancestral knowledgeon pest control practices

5. Developing IPM programs for main agricultural pests making useof traditional and indigenous knowledge of Yemeni farmers

AlAryani, M. (1988). A new inscription from Ma'areb. Al-IkleelJournal 3-4 : 271-272 (in Arabic).

Al-Anasi, Y.BIN Yahya (1998). Agricultural Landmarks inYemen. French Centre for Yemeni Studies &endash; American Centrefor Yemeni Studies. (inArabic)

AlGhashm, M.Y. (1994) Integrated Pest Management &endash;Future Strategy. Yemeni- German Plant Protection Project,Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation.(In Arabic)

Auchterlonie, P. (1998). Flora and Fauna in World BibliographicalSeries. Volume 50 Yemen. Clio Press Pp. 55-61.

Ba-Angood, S. A. (1990). A preliminary survey of natural enemiesfor agricultural pests in Democratic Yemen. AlYaman 2: 22-37 (In Arabic).

Botta, P.E. (1841) Relations d'un voyage dans l' Jemen.Paris

De Bach, P ( 1974) Biological Control of Pests and Weeds .Cambridge University Press.

Doutt, R.L.( 1964). The historical development of biologicalcontrol . Chapter 2 in : " Biological Control of Insect Pests andWeeds " Editor P.DePach Pp.21-44

Forskal, P. (1775). Descriptiones animalium, avium,amphibiorum, piscium, insectorum, vermium quae in itinere orientaliobservavit . Petrus Forskal .- Post mortem autoris edidit CarstenNIEBUHR, Hauniae, 164 pp. Text (Tables 1776)

General Department of Plant Protection (GDPP) and DeutscheGesellschaft fur Technische Zusammenarbeit (GTZ) (1993). TheYemeni German Plant Protection Project. Sana'a.

Hacker, H. (1999) History of collecting insects in Yemen.Insect Fauna of Yemen. Part 1 . Esperiana Buchreihe zurEntomologie Band 7 : 10-14.

Hansen, T.(1993) From Copenhagen to Yemen. Translated intoArabic by M.A.Al- Ra'adi. Center for Yemeni Researches and Studies,Dar AlOadah &endash; Beirut . (In Arabic).

Ingrams, H. ( 1942) Arabia and the Isles . London

Ka'akah, N.A. (1993). Biological Control . Faculty ofAgriculture- University of Aleppo.( In Arabic).

Niebuhr, M. (1792) Travels through Arabia and other countriesin the East (Translated into English by Robert Heron),Edinburgh

Serjeant,P.B.(1974). The cultivation of cereals in Mediaeval Yemen( A translation of Bughyat al Fallahin of the Rasulid Sultanal&endash;Malik al- Afdal al-'Abbas b.'Ali , composed circa 1370A.D.) Arabian Studies 25-74.

Tawfiq, M.F.(1997) Biological Control for AgriculturalPests. Academic Library, Cairo. (In Arabic)

Varisco, D.M. et al. (1992) Indigenous plant protection inYemen (Final Report- Yemeni German Plant Protection Project,Sana'a.