THE PLACE OF ANCIENT AGRICULTURAL PRACTICES AND TECHNIQUES IN YEMEN TODAY:

PROBLEMS AND PERSPECTIVES

Sanaa, Yemen

Data presented in this paper have been obtained from reports of Scientific Expeditions to Yemen, survey of published and unpublished papers and reports as well as results obtained from questionnaires distributed to old farmers to know how our grand Yemeni farmers did in ancient days to manage agricultural pests. Results have shown that Yemeni farmers in ancient times believe on " Protection is better than Cure". They selected the right variety of a crop to be sown in the right sowing date which was known according to known local calendars called " Alnojoum" .Yemeni farmers were among the old nations who used biocontrol agents for the control of agricultural pests. They used to bring predatory ants from mountains for the control of date palm pests in their orchards at Wadi Hadramout and Tihama area. They also put sticks to facilitate its movement from one tree to another. Our grand Yemeni farmers also used sand , ash, oil and some repellent plants to manage agricultural pests; as well as mechanical methods including collecting and eating some agricultural pests like locusts and termites. Yemeni farmers also used different techniques and cantainers to store their agricultural products. They used "Madafin" and barrels for cereals , clay containers such as "Ziar" and skins of goats to store dates; and to protect stored food products they used plant materials such as "Mraimrah", oil, and ash . These old practices Yemeni Farmers used in ancient times formulate what we call recently Integrated Pest Management (IPM) for agricultural pests which we badly need these days.

Agriculture in Yemen dates back to at least 5000 years. (GDPP and GTZ 1993). As far as insects are concerned, some references dated back beekeeping to about 1000BC (Ingrams 1942). History of insect collection in Yemen started later on. The first to launch a scientific expedition to Yemen was Frederick V, King of Denmark (Hacker 1999). Although the first expedition ended tragically as most members died from malaria, but their results were published later on by Niebuhr (1792) and Hansen(1993).

If we follow up the history of agriculture in Yemen, we will find that a lot of ancestral indigenous knowledge developed by Yemeni farmers, which have been elaborated throughout generations and centuries. The Yemeni farmers used different indigenous agricultural practices and techniques including, constructing canals, dams and weirs and developed different ways to harvest water. The archaeological vestiges of large scale hydraulic construction works and terraces built on steep slopes of mountains, as well as different agricultural practices and techniques stand evidences of how Yemeni farmers in ancient times manage the available natural resources and preserve them for centuries.

This paper shows some old indigenous practices our grandfathers used for agricultural pest control in ancient agriculture in Yemen, to make use of in developing recent agricultural practices and to see what do they mean in recent concepts of pest management

For data collection and analysis, we used the following methods and referred to the following sources:

• A questionnaire was distributed in different areas including Tihama region, Taiz, Ibb and southern governorates , The questionnaire aims at answering what indigenous practices used for pest control in the area. Emphases in Tihama area were given to date palm pests and termites. In mid and high altitudes in Taiz, Ibb and Yafe'a was given to coffee pests, and in Wadi Hadramout emphases were given to wheat and date palm. In all surveyed governorates, a question was asked about food storage techniques and problems.

• Survey of available published and unpublished papers and reports, found at some agricultural research and academic institutes that we visit. More concentration was given to European and other foreign expeditions, particularly those reports of Niebuhr (1792) Forskal (1775), Auchterlonie (1998) and Serjeant (1974), in addition to some Yemeni writers who wrote about indigenous and ancient agriculture in Yemen (Al-Anasi 1998)

• We made a survey using On-Line services at Internt, and reached some web pages that mentioned something about Yemen.

• In our field visits to different agricultural areas in Yemen, we contacted old people and ask them about traditional and indigenous practices their grandfathers used for the control of agricultural pests in Yemen.

• We also ask our friends who helped us with some information they keep from their ancestors Mr. Fowad Bahakim an FAO Expert at EMPRES Project was one of them

Selecting the suitable variety and the appropriate sowing date

The results of the questionnaire showed that our grandfathers always used the slogan "Protection is better than Cure". Most agricultural practices used for pest control in ancient Yemen were protective rather than preventive. Farmers always follow a local calendar based on astronomy. They have their own agricultural calendars and Almanacs. Most farmers started sowing a certain crop at a certain "Najm" star. Each star lasts for 13-14 days. If they delay sowing to another star, this means that the crop will not grow well and it may be prune to pests and disease attacks. Each season has its own varieties to be sown only in this season, and on certain stars.

There are several proverbs said in some areas in Yemen that warns farmers of late sowing or not sowing in the appropriate star. For example, in central areas and Dhamar there is a proverb saying" If you catch the season one night earlier, you will have an additional Kaila (unit of yield), but if you sow late in the season by one night, you will have a reduction of one Kaila". Another proverb in Sabr area said" Don't cry for your mother if she died, but cry about one day in Nisan (April), if you missed it". This means that if your mother dies, it is something beyond your control, but if you miss a day in April, which is the best sowing date for sorghum, you have to cry for that, because it is your fault that you missed the appropriate sowing date which will give you high yields of sorghum. This means that our grand farmers are keen enough not to miss the appropriate sowing date. Actually Nisan (April) is the suitable sowing date for summer white sorghum crop in those areas, which starts from 8 &endash; 21 April. In Ibb areas there are also some proverbs about different sowing dates for different cultivars of sorghum. They said "A'athar" (March) sowing is for red cultivars of sorghum, Nisan (April) is for those who want to enjoy looking at a good crop, but A'ayar (May) sowing is just for cows (i.e. not giving grains and you can use it as a fodder crop)".

Al &endash;Anasi (1998) made a good comparative study between the Rasulid Agricultural Calendars and Almanac (808A.H,) 1404 and similar calendars given by the Astronomist Mohamed bin Haidarah (1367A.H.) 1947 concerning the appropriate sowing dates for cereals particularly sorghum. Al-Anasi(1998) mentioned that in AlHada, sorghum grown in what he called Ma'alam Al Thor" where it is sown "Zaghdah" (in few grains). While in Hadramout the summer sowing season started in "Annajm Zabra" which is equivalent to 7th March. The winter sowing season started at the Nijm (Star) "AlBaldah" which started 15th July. Wheat was usually grown in "Nijm AlHout" which starts on 14th October. It is worth to mention that in Wadi Hadramout, all sowing and harvest dates are associated with Annujoum (stars) calendars The farmer always selects the suitable cultivar for the suitable sowing date in the suitable region, and therefore you get "simsim saifi" a summer sesame crop, and "Dura saifi" a summer sorghum crop, autumn and winter crops and so on.

It is observed that most crops in Yemen are called after their harvest season. For example "AlGeiadth" a new inscription discovered recently in Ma'areb (Al-Ariani 1988), is a name for a cereal crop sown in winter and harvested in summer. It is also a name of a Himyari month, which is equivalent to June. Those crops sown after winter rains called "Rabeia'ah" which means spring; they are called after their harvest time.

In early times, Yemeni farmers did the selection of good seeds by themselves. They surveyed the crop and selected the best spikes and ears, tagged them and those selected spikes have different names in different regions. In Anas, they are called "Mahajeen" and are tagged by "Shaga'a", good spikes are called "hajrah".

Some cultivars of cereal and vegetable crops are still named after famous farmers who did the selection year after year and distributed seeds to other farmers in the region. For example there are some wheat and onion cultivars still carry the name of 'Ba-Ftaim" who was a famous intelligent farmer who developed famous selections of cultivars in Wadi Hadramout. There are also other cultivars that were called after a region or an area or a famous farmer in Yemen.

Land preparations and methods of sowing as well as timing of sowing were different in different areas of Yemen and different from crop to crop in the same area. In Tihama, they use what they called "Takbeesh" in sowing Dukhn (millet), In Abyan and Lahej governorates, cotton ,cereals and evevn some vegetables are grown by given only one irrigation by floods diverted to them through dams and weirs, while in other areas in Yemen, cotton and similar crops are given several irrigation. Such traditional methods used for land preparations and irrigation systems must be studied to make use of at rationalizing water use and lead to sustainable agricultural production. These traditional methods Yemeni farmers used concerning selecting the appropriate time of sowing and methods of land preparation, are collectively now called "Agricultural Methods" which are considered very important methods of control in Insect Pest Management (IPM) systems.

Other cultural methods

In ancient agriculture, Yemenis were aware of the importance of pruning particularly for fruit trees. It has been mentioned in "Bughiat AlFallheen" (Sergeant1974) the dates of pruning for most crops , according to star calendars, and time of pruning particularly for grapes, as well as the way they prune grape trees and date palm trees in different parts of Yemen, as they believe that this will help protecting their trees from pests and diseases.

In answering the questionnaire, old farmers mentioned that they also burn the trash and leftovers of crops to get rid of diseases and pests hidden in these parts.

At "Assiteen and Assabeen" season at "Al-Awathil" area, a northern eastern wind usually prevails at sowing time till afternoon, then it stops, if a south western wind prevails after that, farmers usually stop sowing, as they believe that if they continue sowing while this wind prevails, their crop will be infected with smut.

It has been mentioned quite often in early reports( Niebuhr 1796, Serjeant 1974) and also in answers of the questionnaire that farmers used interplanting practices i.e. they used to grow a sorghum crop and in between rows they grow cowpeas or a leguminous crop like lentil in order to improve the quality of the soil, increase its fertility and decrease population of insect pests.

Mechanical methods of pest control

In traditional agriculture, farmers used mechanical control methods for pest control. They used to collect all stages of pests by their hands with the help of all members of the family and destroy them. When locusts attacked the crop they used to collect them, fry them and eat them. They also try to make loud noises, use drums and sing songs in-groups saying, " Oh Locusts go away from our fields".

When termites swarm at night the alated adults that are attracted by light are collected and eaten by farmers.

Farmers used to have different structures (Khial AlMaatah) installed in fields to frighten birds. They also guard their crops at harvest time. The guardsmen make loud noise or make their own special instruments which throw stones or make large noise to frighten birds.

The use of Biocontrol agents for pest control (Biological control)

Yemenis were among the earlier nations that used biocontrol agents for the control of agricultural pests. Botta (1941), Doutt (1964), DeBach (1974) and Ba-Angood(1990) in talking about the history of biological control have mentioned that the Chinese and Yemenis were among the first nations who used biological control methods for agricultural pests . In traditional agriculture farmers in Tihama, Taiz and Hadramout used to collect predatory ants (qu'as) from mountains to control date palm pests which attack fruits. This has been described in a 13th century agricultural text by al-Malik al-Ashraf 'Umar of Rasulid Yemen ( Varisco 1992, DeBach 1974, Serjeant 1974, Ba-Angood 1990). When we asked old farmers about this practice they confirm that. They added that they have to put some sticks to make ants to travel from one tree to another. Later on Ba-Angood (1990) and AlGhashm (1994) have mentioned that still some farmers in Duba'a and wadi Hadramout used this practice. They mentioned that there are three species of predatory ants recorded in date palm trees which are Crematogaster affabilis , C. flaveventris and Monomorium bicolor which were used for the control of the date lesser moth Batrachedra amydraula . Ba-Angood (1990) has also mentioned that these predators are also used for the control of termites in Tihama area

The Use of Oils on pest control

When answering the questionnaire, farmers in Wadi Hadramout mentioned that in traditional agriculture, they used oil for the control of pests and diseases on date palm fruits. Some old farmers said that sesame oil was applied to the flowering branches at the time of pollination in order to protect them from diseases. This is a practice also documented in the medieval text (Varisco 1992). Others said that they applied the oil of castor plant Ricinus communis which they call 'Shajarat azzait' and rubbed the spates of date palm. Ba-Angood (1990) mentioned that they used this oil for the control of the lesser date moth B. amydraula in order to kill the eggs and larvae of the pest and prevent the moth from putting eggs on fruits.

Vegetable oils were also used in traditional agriculture as it is coated on legume and been seeds to protect them from store pests.

The Use of repellant plants

When answering the questionnaire, old farmers in Yafe'a area have mentioned that they never use pesticides for the control of coffee pests in their areas. Instead, they use repellant plants to protect the crop from the attack of pests and diseases. When we have a look to these plants we find that they belong to the genera Ficus and Tagetes . Some of them have local names but we couldn't identify their Latin names. They usually use them for the control of the coffee bean borer 'AlKharz' Prophantis samaragdina and the leaf miner Leucoptera coffeella .

However, In Wadi Alsser at Hamadan and also in Sa'dah , they also used onion bulbs buried in soil near grape trees for the control of termites (Al-Anasi 1998)

Protection from store pests and diseases

Our grandfathers in ancient agriculture used several methods to protect their grains and other stored products from the attack of store pests and diseases. In Al-Hada and Bani Matar areas, good grains are selected and stored mixed with some plants called 'Na'adh' to protect grains from smut diseases (Al-Anasi1998). In Bani Fadhl and Ibb areas, farmers used to mix ash with grains and put in small tanks closed with mud. The use of ash mixed with grains of sorghum and wheat has been mentioned in several reports (Serjeant 1974, Al-Anasi 1998). In Hadramout old farmers said that they are still adopting the traditional methods of keeping dates on clay containers called locally 'Gihal' and 'Ziar' then they close its openings with soft dates and a layer of ash.

Grains and legumes are often stored in underground granaries called 'Madafen'. In Yafe'a and Mukairas areas, they also used barrels and they also closed them with layers of ash. Some of them used Mraimrah (Azadirachta indica) leaves with grains in storage, in order to protect stored grains from the attack of store pests .

When we asked old farmers whether they prefer to store grains in its heads or as individuals, they said that they adopt the recommendation of the prophet Yousuf Assidiq when he advised the King of Egypt that what you harvested keep it in its heads. This also has been recommended by Al-Malik Al-Afdal in Mediaeval Yemen (Sejeant 1974).

In Socotra Island people used skin hides for storing dates and other food products. In answers to the questionnaire and in expedition reports, as well as in Medieval Yemen ( Segeant 1974, AlAnasi 1998), we find that in traditional agriculture, Yemeni farmers used oil, ash and sand for the control of pests and diseases.

For the control of rodents old farmers mentioned that their grandfathers used special types of wild onion, probably 'Basal AlAnsal'.

For pests and diseases transmitted by seeds, it has been mentioned in Mediaeval Yemen, that farmers in Dhamar and Wadi Hadramout used to soak sorghum seeds in water and salt, and they leave them for one night, before sowing. Old farmers commented on that by saying " if they don't change the water, seeds will sprout and will not grow well". This practice was used to protect the seeds from attack by some seedling pests which they call 'AlGaridh' in Dhamar, and 'AL Dowainah' in Wadi Hadramout. Al-Anasi (1998) also confirmed this where he quoted that in Khowlan area, the sorghum seeds should be soaked before sowing and they locally called it 'Mownish' then dried it. Those seeds which are not soaked they call 'Hateem'. If this 'hateem' was sown they expect that it will give small ears and could be attacked by smut disease. Old farmers quoted that in traditional agriculture, you some time got seeds that you are not sure whether they are good or not, and at the same time you want to catch the growing season. So farmers usually put a sample of them in a mesh and pour hot water on them, keep them to cool and then pour ordinary water, dry them and sow them in a small plot. If theses seeds germinated well, then you can use them and the crop will give good yield.

Major pests and diseases mentioned in traditional agriculture

The following insects are those mentioned in Bughyat AlFallaheen in Medieval Yemen (Serjeant 1974) also mentioned by Niebuhr (1792) and Al-Anasi (1998):

Locusts:

Locusts are insect pests that have been mentioned quite a lot in traditional agriculture. Old farmers also complained of its attacks and the losses they made to cereal crops. There are some proverbs about the locust and its damage. AlHakim ( Experienced and wise man) Ali Bin Zaid said" Endi tagoum alGiamah wa la haneen al Majarid", which means that he prefers the world ends rather than he heard the noise s of locusts. A lot of poems were cited in mediaeval agriculture describing the locusts in details and the losses they do to crops. However it is mentioned inmore than one source (Al-Anasi1998) that the Yemeni farmers prefer tha attack of locusts rather than the attack of cold.

In Ghaizan area they have a proverb which says " Ya Rub bgardaj gabl ma yarkaz al aoud", which means that they want the locusts to come but when the seeds just starts sprouting and their stems havn't yet stand up. They explained that at this time when the plant attacked by locusts, would be stimulated to give a good growth. There are some experiments nowadays which show that when locust attack a sorghum crop at an early stage it may stimuale the crop to give more leaves.

AlFarrarah

This insect is described as a long worm, which attacks date palm. It might be 'AlDowaibah' as one of the old farmers said, which is a beetle that attacks dates after harvest.

AlHamar

It is described as an insect pest that attacks wheat and alfalfa

AlHallah

This insect was described as a small green insect that attacks alfalfa and sorghum. The common name for this group of insects is aphids.

AlHout

It is described as a small worm that attacks the stem of cereals. It is probably a stem borer

Aljouthmy

It was described as a small worm that attacks sorghum from below. It is probably either cutworm or armyworm

A'shaheth

It was described as a small insect with the size of a bed bug. It attacks barley. It is said that A'shaheth appears after a lightening and disappeared after another. This insect is probably an aphid.

A'ssalala /Ashadhwi

This insect was described as a termite

Pest control methods for particular pests mentioned in traditional agriculture

Locusts were mentioned quite often in traditional agriculture. Several poems and proverbs were quoted, and different methods of control have been mentioned. Some of which, making noises by drums and using specific structures to frighten locusts e.g. 'Gasabat Al-Jarad'; which consisted of a stick, a piece of cloth and metal structures attached that swing with the wind and make noises. In addition to that, it has been mentioned in more than one region that they also collect locusts and eat it.

Two types of ants were mentioned in traditional agriculture, ants as pests which Yemenis control by putting ash, salt and water at their nests, and ants leave after that. Other predatory ants were used for the control of date palm pests in Tihama and Hadramout areas. They were also used for the control of termites.

Cumin was burnt and used to deter mosquitoes in houses. Some Yemeni farmers burn the chaff of wheat and barley, others burn dung and manure. They believe that this will keep some pests away and some added that this would kill flying insect pests attracted to the fire.

For the control of bed bugs old farmers mentioned that they soak peas for three days, then they add lime to it and coated the walls of the house. They believe that bugs will not live in these houses afterwards.

From above it appears that there are a lot of traditional knowledge and experience in traditional agriculture that needs to be tested, tried and to see whether it is still applicable in these changing environment.

Zakat alMahsool

One of the interested answers to the questionnaire presented to old farmers was Zakat giving, which is a religious tax that must be paid for poor people for each crop harvested They said that the most protective way for the crop is to give zakah once it is harvested. This will protect the yield from pests and diseases in-Sha'a - Allah, as they quoted. This was confirmed in Bughyat AlFallaheen (Serjeant 1974).

Insect Pest Management in Traditional Agriculture in Yemen

It appears from the results of the questionnaire, meetings with old farmers, and expertise; in addition to what foreign people who visited Yemen ( Forskal 1775, Ingrams 1942, Niebuhr 1792, Variso 1992) have written, it seems that Yemenis in ancient agriculture used several methods of control to suit the right location, the right crop sown in the right time. They used protective and preventive methods, including biological, mechanical, cultural methods and they made their own selection of varieties and cultivars. These methods are known recently as Integrated Pest Management (IPM).

Traditional agriculture in Yemen was by far oriented toward sustainable production, with a combination of practices that reduced or eliminated pest infestation and diseases. Many of these practices continue but this knowledge is rapidly disappearing. It is very important to make use of these traditional and indigenous knowledge to develop our Integrated Pest Management Programs (IPM) for main agricultural pests in Yemen, which we badly need recently.

Recommendations

1. We have to make use of the accumulated traditional experience our Yemeni farmers have left concerning the use of plants and their extracts for the control of agricultural pests. We have to identify them and test their efficacy.

2. Verification of sowing dates for different crops according to Agricultural calendars based on star (Alnojoum) calculations

3. A survey of natural indigenous enemies for agricultural pests in Yemen and testing what was used by our grandfathers in ancient agriculture

4. Carrying out applied research to verify the ancestral knowledge on pest control practices

5. Developing IPM programs for main agricultural pests making use of traditional and indigenous knowledge of Yemeni farmers

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