If you have an existing interest in OttomanYemen or the relations btween Yemen and the West during the coffeetrade boom, or just in the mystery of Mocha, you must get this book.Any library with a serious collection on the Middle East needs tohave this book in its collection. Any scholar who is exploring thehistory of Mocha, at any point in history, should begin with thisbook, even if only to consult the impressive bibliography. It wouldappear that far more information from the same sources on the itemstraded is available for further study. There is no other book forMocha and few historical studies on Yemen approach its caliber.
One of the first items to praise is howreadable the book is, not to mention the user-friendly indices. Whilethere are a few spelling errors (e.g. "litteral" on p. 48), thenarrative is clear and, at least to this reader, continuallyfascinating. Even if you had no particular interest in 17th centuryMocha, this book would probably peak your interest. When I say"readable," I also refer to the creative style as well illustrated inthe prologue (reprinted here). Its eloquence, quite literally again,speaks for itself far better than this review could.
The first part of the book is an exercise inhistoriography. Brouwer has combed the literature, Arabic andWestern, to see what is available on Mocha. The result: not verymuch. The medieval Arab geographers and travelers barely mention thetown. The normally loquacious Yaqut devotes but one line to Mocha aslying between Zabid and Aden (how profound...). Yemeni histories andWestern travelogues are searched, but again little appearsspecifically on Mocha until the 16th century. The conclusion:"Islamic al-Mukhâ, we have to conclude, was a mostinsignificant port prior to 1500. A townlet by the sea, nothing more.It was only in the course of the sixteenth century that its role bothas a commercial port and a naval base gained in importance" (p. 40).Following that: "There can be no doubt that this South Arabian townwas a major international seaport between 1600 and 1850, thus forabout two and a half centuries in succession. Cargo ships from allthe coastal areas of the western part of the Indian Ocean, fromPersia, Oman, Gujarat, Malabar, Chormandel, Malindi, Somalia andAbyssinia supplied the port with commodities, varying from spices,chinaware and textiles to metals, sugar and tobacco. They returned,loaded up with coffee beans, frankincense, myrrh, noble metals etc.The city was connected with Egypt, Syria and Turkey overland by meansof caravans and overseas by cargo vessels. Western merchantmen calledat its roadstead; the powerful East India companies of the Englishand the Dutch maintained offices there, though not permanently.According to the standards of the time and in that part of the globe,al-Mukhâ was a large and populous city" (pp. 54-55). After 1850the key word is decline. In the early 20th century Bury referred toMocha as "a dead-live, mouldering town."
Having surveyed the range of original texts,Brouwer provides a very informative "heuristic" analysis of modernresearch on Yemen. Here one finds an annotated guide to researchabout Mocha. The first study that comes to mind is Eric Macro's 1960Bibliography on Yemen and Notes on Mocha, which Brouwer justlydeconstructs as amateurish and of dubious methodology for mixing timeperiods with abandon (p. 63). The author finds some 31 referencesthat focus on Mecca, mostly journal articles or entries in referenceworks. He then explores the problem of finding "hidden" sources onYemen -- references that do not directly refer to Mocha in theirtitles. Concluding this historiographic exercise, Brouwer remarks:"The exceedingly poor harvest of historical contributions ofsufficient scientific calibre which are exclusively devoted to earlyseventheenth-century al-Mukhâ, and the equally poor stream ofpublications in which valuable considerations on the port areincorporated or 'hidden', not the least the restricted range ofaspects which have light shed upon them in both categories ofsecondary literature, make Macro's judgement from 1980 almost achutzpah: 'The history of how Mocha came to exist; how, why and whenit reached its zenith and the reasons for its decline, (...) is wellenough known by Arabian specialists'" (p. 84).
There is much to be learned about early 17thcentury Mocha as town and port in this volume. For example... Unlikeother Yemeni towns such as Aden, Taiz, or Sanaa, Mocha had no townwall in 1616 (p. 129). Brouwer compiles a sketch plan of the town (p.143). Based on a variety of clues, the population of Mocha may havereached 20,000 permanent residents with about 1-2000 visitorsswelling the town during the monsoon trade season (p. 207). Mocha wasan important center for the camel trade (p. 222). Information is alsoprovided on sailing times and the number of vessels in and out of theport. The annual number of ships calling at Mocha is estimated at32-34 (mostly from Western India) for the early 17th century.
One of the major contributions is a virtualwindow into the life of the Dutch merchants in Mocha. Brouwerestimates that some 200 Dutch East Indies sailors, captains, soldiersand merchants visited Mocha in the the time period studied. We findout where they lived, how they lived, the political problems theyfaced, types of ships, details about crews, customs and trade. Someconverted to Islam, some mutinied, some died, all no doubt hated theintense heat. In 1638 the Dutch East Indies Company resumed trade inYemen with Imam Husayn, who issued a "binding firman" with thefollowing stipulations (p.240): "They may freely call at this bander(bandar). They may trade in the interior without any hindrance. Theymay provide their office directly, i.e. by bypassing the weighhouse.They enjoy a number of toll priviledges. On the death of one of them,the goods left behind will devolve upon their overhooft ('chief'). Ifsomeone runs away, he will be brought back. In the case of theirgetting involved in scuffles with subjects of the Imâm, theDutch leaders are entitled to punish them. They may practice theirfaith in full freedom, and need not fear any 'molestation' therein.In conclusion, Husayn solemnly promises that he, for his part, willnever break the fermân, unless the other party provokes him todo so."
"Nowadays," concludes Brouwer,"al-Mukhâ is little more than a sloping field of ruins,anything but a pulsating port" (p. 377). True, but a bit of the pulsecan be felt with a careful reading of this erudite volume.
A couple of coasters are moored at anextended loading jetty to the south. The harbour grounds havebarriers closely guarded by soldiers. A customs house is crowded withbusy officers. A swarm of lorries has settled around the mosque.Gleaming on the northern horizon, a power station ... These, at theend of the Eighties, are the visible signs of al-Mukha's resurrectionor, at least, of the arrested decay of this Yemeni port.
For the rest, the city is still the sameendless field of ruins it was in the summer of 1976 when I visited itfor the very first time. After a long journey descending from Ta'izz,across the slopes of the Tihâma, the taxi suddenly stopped. Myheavily armed travelling companions jumped out and dispersed swiftlyin all directions. I asked the kât chewing driver to continuethe trip to al-Mukhâ. But he answered: 'This is al-Mukhâ!You are right in the centre of the town'. Dazed, I looked around me.I saw huts made of combed wood and covered by gunny sacks scatteredover a vast sandy plain, in between them reed structures with pointedcaps were held together by ropes. There were a few stone houses too,with two or three stories, some of which were partially collapsed,their plaster work in tatters, their bays dismantled, their windows,robbed of their shutters, offering a perspective, though holes in theroofs, to the sky.
There was no alternative to AbûSâlih's poor funduk to be found. On its crumbling stairs a goatsought shelter in the shadow. In the inner court the drinking water,distributed early in the morning and collected in an oil barrel, wascooking in the sun. The clammy heat was unbearable. Stretched out ona rickety plank bed, sweat was running out of every pore.
The reconnoitring expeditions I went on inthe days after resulted in ineradicable pictures of loss andtransitoriness. Doors of empty warehouses and of dwellings left forever creaked in the wind, their hinges fallen off. In dark holes afew poor vegetables and fish, some imported canned food, and bundlesof kât, were offered for sale. By way of alternative nationalservice, a disillusioned French doctor carried out operations oncritically ill children in a temporary hospital. Judging by thestones blown bare by the wind, an arena full of pits and little hillshid a cemetery. A small mosque of provincial appearance stood besidethe sea. Not far inland, as if it were lost, was theal-Shâdhili mosque with its adjacent beehive tomb, themulti-stage minaret dazzling white at a distance but at closequarters grey and flaking. In a wide curve all around was a series ofdefensive towers, partly deteriorated, and with what only a richimagination could succeed in reconstructing as a ring-wall betweenthem.
On the southern shore, just past a littleconcrete bridge, were the ruins of a building that had once served asa shower cabinet according to a faded inscription in English: 'Afterthe sea wash your body here'. Near the flood line lay a few raftscomposed of four or five knee timbers bound together with ropes,covered with nets, and with a stone being used as an anchor. Thenthere was a cluster of fishing proas shored up by car tyres andspars, with sharp bows and flat sterns, brightly coloured, with namessuch as Ashâb or al-Sadâka in unwieldy characters; in thestripes of shadow below them skinny dogs sought protection from thesun. A series of hulls followed, partly buried in the sand, unrigged,scrapped, with the remains of hawsers, rust-eaten anchors, crackedrafters and rails, rotten ceilings and shell plates. A perishedfleet. Along the asphalt road, melting in the sun, between the beachand the saltpans, was a line of electricity poles, some of themcapsized, their hanging wires leading to a stake structure that informer days had served as a light beacon.
Then, finally, a tongue of land ending in ashort mole. Some flat-bottomed boats were moored there. Dockers,stripped to the waists and sweltering in the heat, were unloadingsacks of cement on their shoulders and necks, hauling them over asagging plank to a lorry. A tiny chugging tug, manoeuvring betweenthe sandbars, towed a string of boats to the distant roadstead wherethree ships, loaded with cement and Djibuti whiskey, were anchored.At a sandbar, crossways to the quay-wall, lay three wooden dhows,their sails furled, with round bellies, sharp pointed bows and poops,and decorated with geometric edgings. The crew of one of these ships,six souls in all, skirted and turbanned, gathered around kettles andpans next to their vessel; a curly-haired ship's boy, left on boardas a lookout, stared down on them. At the very end of the mole was asmall sea fortress in a state of irreparable decay. Some gun barrelswhich had tumbled from their carriages lay at its base, washed overby the waves. A similar ruin, likewise surrounded by flooded weapons,was at the northern point of the half-moon shaped bay.
This was al-Mukhâ. A seaport coveredby a greyish-blue sky, flogged by a boiling hot sandy wind thatsometimes reached storm force. Its sparse inhabitants preferred tostay inside their houses during the day. A desolate place. Could thistown really once have been the famous international entrepôt onthe coast of 'Arabia Felix', the port of destination for numeroiusrichly loaded vessels from all quarters of the world, the coffee portfrom which 'mocha' takes its name?
Plates
Maps
Tables, lists, and figures
Abbreviations
Prologue
Introduction
PART I
Sources, Studies, and Subject
1. Al-Mukhâ through the ages: Aselection from the sources
History up to 1600: Pre-Islamic era, 25.Islamic period: Oriental authorities, 27. Western witnesses, 28.Yemeni geographical and navigational writings, 30. Yemeni chronicles,33. Yemeni biographical works, 36. Recapitulation, 38. Heyday,1600-1850: Oriental and Yemeni evidence, 40. Western testimonies, 45.Decline, 1850-1950: Oriental, Yemeni, and Western sources,55.
2. Al-Mukhâ in modernresearch
Monographic studies: Heuristic apparatus,61. Monographic studies, all periods, 62. Summary, 68. Hiddenstudies: Demarcation, 69. Hidden studies, early 17th century: Yemeni,70. Non-Yemeni, 73. Recapitulation, 81. Conclusion, 84.
3. al-Mukhâ in profile
Sources: Sources, early 17th century, 85.Ottoman sources, 85. Yemeni-Arab sources, 87. English sources, 90.Dutch sources, 91. Subject: Choice of sources, 98. al-Mukhâ,1614-1640: City and shipping according to Dutch witnesses, 99. Sometheoretical considerations, 101. Source-criticism, 103. Context: TheFirst Ottoman Period, 1538-1636, 106. The Dutch East India Company(VOC), 1602-1799, 112.
PART II
The City of al-Mukhâ
4. Situation and buildings
Situation: General location, 119. Bay andcoast, 121. Currents and climate, 122. Roads and jetty, 125. Galley'sanchorage and mole, 127. Buildings: General aspect, 128. Wall, 129.Castle, 129, Sea fortresses, 130. Governor's palace, 132.'Alfandinga', 133. Mosques and shrines, 134. Houses, 135. Prominentdwellings, 137. Factories, 137. Jail, 140. Serails and public baths,140. Coffee houses, 140. Marketplace, 141. Shipyard, 141. Cemeteries,142. Streets and squares, 142. City plan, 144.
5. Government
Turkish rule: The Sultan: Territory, 145.Aims, 147. Periods of reign, 148. The Beylerbeyi: Appointment, 148.Journey, 151. Accession, 152. Entourage, 153. Forces, 154. Revenues,156. Relationships with al-Mukhâ, 157. Terms of office, 164.Income, 166. Periods of rule, 167. Arab rule: The Imâm:Expeller of the Turks, 168. Pretenders to the imâmate, 170.Sphere of influence and policy, 173. The Amîr: Installation andpower, 174. Subordinates, pomp, and revenues, 175. Âghâand Amîr, 176.
6. Defence
Army and navy: Soldiers, 179.Ca'ûshes, 181. Armament, 183. Galleys, 185. Galley's captain,186. Sloops, 187. Defensive capacity: Wall, castle, fortresses, andgalleys, 188. European threat to the city, 190. European blocade ofthe Bab, 194. Turkish protection, 195. Indian safeguard,197.
7. Population
Composition and size: Explosive growth, 201.Inhabitants, 202. Residents, 203. Visitors, 204. Size, 206. Diseaseand death, 207. Women, 209. Strata and professions: Social levels,211. Professions and trades, 214. Food supply and transport: Dailyfood, 217. Drinkable water, 218. Firewood, 220. Pack animals, 220.Riding animals, 223.
8. Religion, legal status, andlanguage
Religion: Muslims, 237. Hindus, Jews, andChristians, 228. Conversion, 229. Legal status: The Dutch under theTurks, 232. The Dutch under the Arabs, 239. Legal position of theDutch traders: summary, 241. Legal position of the other non-islamicmerchants, 244. Language: Diversity of languages, 246. The Arabickoine, 250. Interpreters, terdjumâns, and documents,252.
PART III
The Shipping of al-Mukhâ
9. Harbour
Arrival and departure: Anchorage, 259.Surrender of sails, 261. Inspection, 262. Entry, 262. Audience, 264.Tour, 265. Discordant reception, 266. Departure, 268. Customs,services, and offices: Presents, 270. Kaftâns, 273. Anchorage,274. Rent, 275. Transport, 276. Victualling, 281. Shâhbandar,282.
10. Ships
Eastern ships: Types and rates, 287.Capacity and draught, 289. Hull, 292. Superstructure and rig, 294.Image, 295. Shipyards, 298. Names, 298. Western ships: Types, 300.Carrying capacity, 302. Draught, 303. Hull, superstructure, and rig,304. Portraits, 305. Rough description, 305. Naming, 307.
11. Ordnance, crew, and owner
Ordnance: Asian ships, 309. European ships,309. Crew: The Asians: survey, 312. Nâkhudâh, 314.Mu'allim, 316. Writer, 318. The English, 318. The Dutch: generalpicture, 320. commanders and merchants, 322. Masters and mates, 326.Size and rough composition, 328. Functions and pay in detail, 330.Administration of justice, 334. Owner: Western and Eastern ships,335.
12. Shipping
Communications: Network, 339. Routes, 342.Sailing times: Seasons, 346. Duration of voyage, 349. Size: Annualtotals, 355. Regional contribution, 356. Navigation: Art ofnavigation, 360. Depths and bottom, 364. Currents, 366. Weatherconditions, 367. Provisioning, 370.
Conclusion
Epilogue
Appendices
I) Shipping movements
II) Crews
III) Sailing times
IV) Totals of ships
Weights, measures, and coinages
Dynastic tables
Glossary
Dutch Sources
Bibliography
Indices
